Valongo, genetic studies on an isolated Afro-Brazilian community
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《遗传学和分子生物学》
IUniversidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Ciências Biologicas, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Embriologia e Genetica, Laboratorio de Polimorfismos Geneticos, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
IIUniversidade Federal do Parana, Setor de Ciências Biologicas, Departamento de Genetica, Laboratorio de Polimorfismos e Ligao, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
ABSTRACT
A southern Brazilian isolated community of predominantly sub-Saharan African origin, with a total population of 74 individuals and high degree of inbreeding (F = 0.081) was studied. The small sizes of the breeding (35) and effective (21) populations, as well as the very small effective migration rate (4%), suggest a high probability for the occurrence of genetic drift. A sample was typed for fourteen blood genetic systems and most of these systems seem to reveal the founder effect. This evolutionary factor was probably responsible for the absence of some polymorphic alleles frequent in African populations, i.e.: ABOB, RHD-RHCEDCe, GPA-GPBNS (MNSsNS), GPA-GPBNSU (MNSsNSU), HBBS, HP2M and ESD2. The most unusual allele frequency was that for BCHEA, 0.27, four times higher than its highest estimated frequency and fifty times higher than that those observed in African populations. Considering the allele frequencies of the Sub-Saharan African (A) and European (E) ancestral populations, the population studied can be quantified as containing 97.33% ± 10.41 of A alleles and 2.67% ± 10.41 of E alleles.
Key words: isolated community, polymorphism, random genetic drift, blood systems, admixture.
The isolated Valongo community was founded in the 1880s by seven runaway and freed slaves, plus a white man, in the region called 'Serto de Valongo' (27°12'12'' S, 48°44'30'' W) in the Porto Belo municipality of the southern Brazilian state of Santa Catarina and by 1995 had a population of 74 people of predominantly African origin and has been described in detail by Souza and Culpi (1992). The average inbreeding coefficient is high (F = 0.081), mostly due to the abundance of relatives remaining in the region and to religious (they are Seventh Day Adventists) and racial segregation (neighbouring communities have descended from Catholic Europeans of German, Italian and Portuguese origin). The small size of the breeding (35) and effective (21) population and the effective migration frequency (4%) strongly suggested the possibility of genetic drift.
The aim of the research presented in this paper is to verify the possible effect of genetic drift in the Valongo community by comparing phenotypic and allele frequencies for several different polymorph systems found within this community with those of other populations composed of individuals of sub-Saharan African ancestry. We also undertook to calculate the average heterozygosity and to examine the effect of inbreeding on the phenotype frequencies and quantify the relative contribution of the different ethnic groups to the current gene pool of the Valongo community.
Blood samples were collected from 49 different individuals (22 women and 27 men, 66% of the inhabitants) whose ages varied from 4 and 90 years. The study was sanctioned by the bioethics commission of our institutions and blood samples only taken after obtaining the informed consent of the individual or, in the case of children, legal guardian. Fourteen loci were tested for, the ABO (ABO), Duffy (FY) P (P), Rh (tested with anti-C, -c, -D, -E, -e for the RHD-RHCE loci), MNSs (GPA-GPB) and Kell (KEL) loci in each blood sample being detected serologically and the hemoglobin (HBB), haptoglobin (HP), transferrin (TF), albumin (ALB), esterase D (ESD) and carbonic anhydrase 2 (CA2) loci using horizontal 10% starch gel electrophoresis (Smithies, 1955 and Harris et al., 1960 as modified by Carvalho and Azevedo, 1976). Loci abbreviations are given in parenthesis. The cholinesterase CHE2 locus was investigated using 1% agar electrophoresis (Robinson et al., 1957, adapted by Van Ross and Vervoot, 1973) and the method of Alcantara et al. (1991) was employed to phenotype the butyrilcholinesterase BCHE locus.
Allele frequencies were calculated either by gene counting using the square root of the frequency of recessive homozygotes, or by use of a quadratic equation (Race and Sanger, 1975) assuming Hardy-Weinberg (H-W) or Wright equilibrium and the c2 values calculated using the CLUMP program (Sham and Curtis, 1995). Nei's (1987) method was employed to calculate the average heterozygosity. The admixture values (i.e. the relative contribution of sub-Saharan African and Ibero-European ancestors) were obtained by the weighted least-squares method (Long, 1991a,b) using the ADMIX program (Ota, 1993) and the allele frequencies of the thirteen loci investigated by us plus another 39 alleles belonging to the studied population and its ancestral sub-Saharan African (Bantu and west African) and Ibero-European populations compiled from the literature (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Bortolini et al., 1995). The 39 additional alleles were chosen because they had previously been used to calculate admixture in isolated southern Brazilian populations which had been located based on the history of the region (Bortolini et al., 1992; 1994; 1997). The isolated Valongo population was considered di-hibrid because we knew the history of its foundation.
Demographic studies have shown that from 1985 to 1995 the breeding and effective population of Valongo has increased and the average age of the population decreased despite a decrease in the number of individuals in the population, and this community is essentially young, expanding, and maintaining a low frequency of migration with a high inbreeding coefficient. The F value of the Valongo population has increased from 0.048 in 1985 (Souza and Culpi, 1992) to 0.078 in 1990 (Souza, 1993) and to 0.081 in 1995 and multiple consanguinities have appeared. With regard to the non-consanguineous marriages, generally men were the immigrants while the women belonged to the community. Ethnic, social, cultural and religious factors were very important in the maintenance of the characteristics of this isolated community and the low exogamy coefficient observed turned this small village of little or no social or economic importance into an excellent biological model for studies on genetic drift and evolutionary factors.
Phenotype and allele frequencies for the fourteen alleles studied are shown in Table 1 which also shows the heterozygosity per locus (h) and the average heterozygosity (H). The genotypes were distributed in accordance with expected Hardy-Weinberg and Wright equilibrium. The h values varied from zero (KEL, HBB, ALB, ESD and CHE2) to 0.682 (RH) and the H value was 0.242 ± 0.063, this H value agreeing with those calculated for other Afro-Brazilian isolated populations, i.e. 0.177 ± 0.044 for the Trombetas population (Schneider et al., 1987), 0.192 ± 0.049 for the Cameta population and 0.262 ± 0.061 for the Paredo population as well as for the isolated Venezuelan Curiepe population (H = 0.243 ± 0.052) studied by Bortolini et al. (1992).
Harris and Hopkinson (1972) evaluated the extent of polymorphisms in humans by studying 71 genetic enzymatic systems. They observed that 28 of these systems were polymorphic when analyzed by electrophoresis and calculated an average heterozygosity (H) of 0.067. Neel (1984) estimated a value of H of between 0.120 and 0.130 for human protein loci. The H values for Valongo and for Trombetas, Cameta, Paredo and Curiepe were higher than expected. The reason for this might be the choice of the systems studied, probably based on the knowledge that they were polymorphic in other populations.
The BCHEA allele, idiomorphic in sub-Saharan African populations (Whittaker, 1968) was polymorphic in Valongo and presented the highest frequency yet registered for any population (Szeinberg et al., 1972; Roychoudhury and Nei, 1988; Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994). With regard to the ABO, HBB, HP and ESD loci and the RHD-RHCE and GPA-GPB (MNSs) haplotypes, genetic drift was involved in the absence of certain alleles and haplotypes considered polymorphic (ABOB, HBBS, HP2M, ESD2, RHD-RHCEDCe, GPA-GPBNS and GPA-GPBNSU) in sub-Saharan African populations (Roychoudhury and Nei, 1988; Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994). The HBB and ESD loci were monomorphic in this isolate.
The frequency of certain alleles at the origin of the Valongo population (founder effect) as well as the variation in the frequency of some other alleles in successive generations of this isolated community was determined by the small size of the effective population. In spite of the high inbreeding coefficient and the important role of genetic drift, average heterozygosity and the level of polymorphism was still high.
Finally, considering the allele frequencies of the Sub-Saharan African (A) and European (E) ancestral populations (Table 2), the studied population can be quantified as follows: 97.33% ± 10.41 of A alleles and 2.67% ± 10.41 of E alleles, with MSE = 27.07%. The values of admixture reflect, in part, the subjective classification based on physical appearance. Individuals sampled in Valongo were mostly identified as Negro or Mulatto with only one Caucasian individual existing in the population. The mean squared error (MSE) represents the proportion of allele frequency variation unexplained by the admixture model.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Dr. Sergio Luiz Primo-Parmo (in memoriam) and to Dr. Vania M. Alcantara for the phenotyping of the BCHE and CHE2 loci and to Dr. Eleidi Chautard-Freire-Maia and to Dr. Nadir Ferrari for a critical reading of the manuscript. We also wish to thank the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the Federal University of Parana for financial support.
References
Alcantara VM, Chautard-Freire-Maia EA, Picheth G and Vieira M (1991) A method for serum cholinesterase phenotyping. Brazil J Genet 14:841-846.
Bortolini MC, Weimer TA, Franco MHLP, Salzano FM, Layrisse Z, Schneider H, Schneider MPC and Harada ML (1992) Genetic studies in three South American Black populations. Gene Geography 6:1-16.
Bortolini MC, Weimer TA, Salzano FM, Callegari-Jacques SM, Schneider H and Layrisse Z (1994) The origin of South American Blacks: An estimative using genetic data. Anthropol Biol 2:53-62.
Bortolini MC, Weimer TA, Salzano FM, Callegari-Jacques SM, Schneider H, Layrisse Z and Bonatto SL (1995) Evolucionary relationships between Black South America and African populations. Hum Biol 67:547-559.
Bortolini MC, Salzano FM, Zago MA, Silva-Junior WA and Weimer TA (1997) Genetic variability in two Brazilian ethnic groups: Comparison of mitochondrial and protein data. Amer J Phys Anthrop 103:147-156.
Carvalho RES and Azevêdo ES (1976) Melhoria na separao eletroforetica de proteinas atraves de substituio do amido importado por amido brasileiro comercial. Ciênc Cult 28:1507-1508.
Cavalli-Sforza LL, Menozzi P and Piazza A (1994) History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press, Princeton, v. 1, 541 pp.
Harris H and Hopkinson DA (1972) Average heterozygosity per locus in man: An estimate based on the incidence of enzyme polymorphism. Ann Hum Genet 36:9-20.
Harris H, Penington DG and Robson EB (1960) Electrophoresis of plasma proteins in starch gels. Bioch J 74:44-45.
Long JC (1991a) The genetic structure of admixed populations. Genetics 127:417-428.
Long JC (1991b) Genetic variation in Arizona Mexican Americans: Estimation and interpretation of admixture proportions. Am J Phys Anthropol 61:411-422.
Neel JV (1984) A revised estimate of the amount of genetic variation in human proteins: Implications for the distribution of DNA polymorphisms. Amer J Hum Genet 36:1135-1148.
Nei M (1987) Molecular Evolutionary Genetics. Columbia University Press, New York, pp 176-184.
Ota T (1993) DISPAN: Genetic Distance and Phylogenetic Analysis. University Park, PA: Institute of Molecular Evolutionary Genetics, Pennsylvania State University.
Race RR and Sanger R (1975) Blood Groups in Man. 6th edition. Blackwell, Oxford, 659 pp.
Robinson AR, Robson M, Harrison AP and Zuelzer WW (1957) A new technique for differentiation of hemoglobin. J Lab Clin Med 50:745-752.
Roychoudhury AK and Nei M (1988) Human Polymorphic Genes World Distribution. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 393 pp.
Schneider H, Guerreiro JF, Santos SEB, Weimer TA, Schneider MPC and Salzano FM (1987) Isolate breakdown in Amazonia: The Blacks of Trombetas river. Brazil J Genet 10:565- 574.
Sham PC and Curtis D (1995) Monte Carlo tests for associations between disease and alleles at highly polymorphic loci. Ann Hum Genet59:97-105.
Smithies O (1955) Zone electrophoresis in starch gels: Group variations in the serum proteins of normal human adults. Bioch Genet 61:629- 641.
Souza IR de (1993) Estudos demograficos geneticos em uma comunidade negroide isolada, Valongo, SC. Dissertao de Mestrado, Universidade Federal do Parana, Curitiba, 209 pp.
Souza IR de and Culpi L (1992) Valongo, an isolated Brazilian Black community. I. Structure of the population. Brazil J Genet 15:439-447.
Szeinberg A, Pipano S, Assa M, Medalie JH and Neuleld HM (1972) High frequency of atypical pseudocholinesterase gene among Iraqui and Iranian Jews. Clin Genet 3:123-127.
Van Ros G and Vervoort T (1973) Frequencies of the "atypical" and C5 variants of serum cholinesterase in Zairians and Belgians. Detection of the C5 variant by agar gel electrophoresis with an acid buffer. Ann Soc Belge Med Trop 53:633-644.
Whittaker M (1968) Frequency of atypical pseudocholinesterase in groups of individuals of different ethnographical origin. Acta Genet 18:567-572.(liada Rainha de Souza; Lo)
IIUniversidade Federal do Parana, Setor de Ciências Biologicas, Departamento de Genetica, Laboratorio de Polimorfismos e Ligao, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
ABSTRACT
A southern Brazilian isolated community of predominantly sub-Saharan African origin, with a total population of 74 individuals and high degree of inbreeding (F = 0.081) was studied. The small sizes of the breeding (35) and effective (21) populations, as well as the very small effective migration rate (4%), suggest a high probability for the occurrence of genetic drift. A sample was typed for fourteen blood genetic systems and most of these systems seem to reveal the founder effect. This evolutionary factor was probably responsible for the absence of some polymorphic alleles frequent in African populations, i.e.: ABOB, RHD-RHCEDCe, GPA-GPBNS (MNSsNS), GPA-GPBNSU (MNSsNSU), HBBS, HP2M and ESD2. The most unusual allele frequency was that for BCHEA, 0.27, four times higher than its highest estimated frequency and fifty times higher than that those observed in African populations. Considering the allele frequencies of the Sub-Saharan African (A) and European (E) ancestral populations, the population studied can be quantified as containing 97.33% ± 10.41 of A alleles and 2.67% ± 10.41 of E alleles.
Key words: isolated community, polymorphism, random genetic drift, blood systems, admixture.
The isolated Valongo community was founded in the 1880s by seven runaway and freed slaves, plus a white man, in the region called 'Serto de Valongo' (27°12'12'' S, 48°44'30'' W) in the Porto Belo municipality of the southern Brazilian state of Santa Catarina and by 1995 had a population of 74 people of predominantly African origin and has been described in detail by Souza and Culpi (1992). The average inbreeding coefficient is high (F = 0.081), mostly due to the abundance of relatives remaining in the region and to religious (they are Seventh Day Adventists) and racial segregation (neighbouring communities have descended from Catholic Europeans of German, Italian and Portuguese origin). The small size of the breeding (35) and effective (21) population and the effective migration frequency (4%) strongly suggested the possibility of genetic drift.
The aim of the research presented in this paper is to verify the possible effect of genetic drift in the Valongo community by comparing phenotypic and allele frequencies for several different polymorph systems found within this community with those of other populations composed of individuals of sub-Saharan African ancestry. We also undertook to calculate the average heterozygosity and to examine the effect of inbreeding on the phenotype frequencies and quantify the relative contribution of the different ethnic groups to the current gene pool of the Valongo community.
Blood samples were collected from 49 different individuals (22 women and 27 men, 66% of the inhabitants) whose ages varied from 4 and 90 years. The study was sanctioned by the bioethics commission of our institutions and blood samples only taken after obtaining the informed consent of the individual or, in the case of children, legal guardian. Fourteen loci were tested for, the ABO (ABO), Duffy (FY) P (P), Rh (tested with anti-C, -c, -D, -E, -e for the RHD-RHCE loci), MNSs (GPA-GPB) and Kell (KEL) loci in each blood sample being detected serologically and the hemoglobin (HBB), haptoglobin (HP), transferrin (TF), albumin (ALB), esterase D (ESD) and carbonic anhydrase 2 (CA2) loci using horizontal 10% starch gel electrophoresis (Smithies, 1955 and Harris et al., 1960 as modified by Carvalho and Azevedo, 1976). Loci abbreviations are given in parenthesis. The cholinesterase CHE2 locus was investigated using 1% agar electrophoresis (Robinson et al., 1957, adapted by Van Ross and Vervoot, 1973) and the method of Alcantara et al. (1991) was employed to phenotype the butyrilcholinesterase BCHE locus.
Allele frequencies were calculated either by gene counting using the square root of the frequency of recessive homozygotes, or by use of a quadratic equation (Race and Sanger, 1975) assuming Hardy-Weinberg (H-W) or Wright equilibrium and the c2 values calculated using the CLUMP program (Sham and Curtis, 1995). Nei's (1987) method was employed to calculate the average heterozygosity. The admixture values (i.e. the relative contribution of sub-Saharan African and Ibero-European ancestors) were obtained by the weighted least-squares method (Long, 1991a,b) using the ADMIX program (Ota, 1993) and the allele frequencies of the thirteen loci investigated by us plus another 39 alleles belonging to the studied population and its ancestral sub-Saharan African (Bantu and west African) and Ibero-European populations compiled from the literature (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Bortolini et al., 1995). The 39 additional alleles were chosen because they had previously been used to calculate admixture in isolated southern Brazilian populations which had been located based on the history of the region (Bortolini et al., 1992; 1994; 1997). The isolated Valongo population was considered di-hibrid because we knew the history of its foundation.
Demographic studies have shown that from 1985 to 1995 the breeding and effective population of Valongo has increased and the average age of the population decreased despite a decrease in the number of individuals in the population, and this community is essentially young, expanding, and maintaining a low frequency of migration with a high inbreeding coefficient. The F value of the Valongo population has increased from 0.048 in 1985 (Souza and Culpi, 1992) to 0.078 in 1990 (Souza, 1993) and to 0.081 in 1995 and multiple consanguinities have appeared. With regard to the non-consanguineous marriages, generally men were the immigrants while the women belonged to the community. Ethnic, social, cultural and religious factors were very important in the maintenance of the characteristics of this isolated community and the low exogamy coefficient observed turned this small village of little or no social or economic importance into an excellent biological model for studies on genetic drift and evolutionary factors.
Phenotype and allele frequencies for the fourteen alleles studied are shown in Table 1 which also shows the heterozygosity per locus (h) and the average heterozygosity (H). The genotypes were distributed in accordance with expected Hardy-Weinberg and Wright equilibrium. The h values varied from zero (KEL, HBB, ALB, ESD and CHE2) to 0.682 (RH) and the H value was 0.242 ± 0.063, this H value agreeing with those calculated for other Afro-Brazilian isolated populations, i.e. 0.177 ± 0.044 for the Trombetas population (Schneider et al., 1987), 0.192 ± 0.049 for the Cameta population and 0.262 ± 0.061 for the Paredo population as well as for the isolated Venezuelan Curiepe population (H = 0.243 ± 0.052) studied by Bortolini et al. (1992).
Harris and Hopkinson (1972) evaluated the extent of polymorphisms in humans by studying 71 genetic enzymatic systems. They observed that 28 of these systems were polymorphic when analyzed by electrophoresis and calculated an average heterozygosity (H) of 0.067. Neel (1984) estimated a value of H of between 0.120 and 0.130 for human protein loci. The H values for Valongo and for Trombetas, Cameta, Paredo and Curiepe were higher than expected. The reason for this might be the choice of the systems studied, probably based on the knowledge that they were polymorphic in other populations.
The BCHEA allele, idiomorphic in sub-Saharan African populations (Whittaker, 1968) was polymorphic in Valongo and presented the highest frequency yet registered for any population (Szeinberg et al., 1972; Roychoudhury and Nei, 1988; Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994). With regard to the ABO, HBB, HP and ESD loci and the RHD-RHCE and GPA-GPB (MNSs) haplotypes, genetic drift was involved in the absence of certain alleles and haplotypes considered polymorphic (ABOB, HBBS, HP2M, ESD2, RHD-RHCEDCe, GPA-GPBNS and GPA-GPBNSU) in sub-Saharan African populations (Roychoudhury and Nei, 1988; Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994). The HBB and ESD loci were monomorphic in this isolate.
The frequency of certain alleles at the origin of the Valongo population (founder effect) as well as the variation in the frequency of some other alleles in successive generations of this isolated community was determined by the small size of the effective population. In spite of the high inbreeding coefficient and the important role of genetic drift, average heterozygosity and the level of polymorphism was still high.
Finally, considering the allele frequencies of the Sub-Saharan African (A) and European (E) ancestral populations (Table 2), the studied population can be quantified as follows: 97.33% ± 10.41 of A alleles and 2.67% ± 10.41 of E alleles, with MSE = 27.07%. The values of admixture reflect, in part, the subjective classification based on physical appearance. Individuals sampled in Valongo were mostly identified as Negro or Mulatto with only one Caucasian individual existing in the population. The mean squared error (MSE) represents the proportion of allele frequency variation unexplained by the admixture model.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Dr. Sergio Luiz Primo-Parmo (in memoriam) and to Dr. Vania M. Alcantara for the phenotyping of the BCHE and CHE2 loci and to Dr. Eleidi Chautard-Freire-Maia and to Dr. Nadir Ferrari for a critical reading of the manuscript. We also wish to thank the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the Federal University of Parana for financial support.
References
Alcantara VM, Chautard-Freire-Maia EA, Picheth G and Vieira M (1991) A method for serum cholinesterase phenotyping. Brazil J Genet 14:841-846.
Bortolini MC, Weimer TA, Franco MHLP, Salzano FM, Layrisse Z, Schneider H, Schneider MPC and Harada ML (1992) Genetic studies in three South American Black populations. Gene Geography 6:1-16.
Bortolini MC, Weimer TA, Salzano FM, Callegari-Jacques SM, Schneider H and Layrisse Z (1994) The origin of South American Blacks: An estimative using genetic data. Anthropol Biol 2:53-62.
Bortolini MC, Weimer TA, Salzano FM, Callegari-Jacques SM, Schneider H, Layrisse Z and Bonatto SL (1995) Evolucionary relationships between Black South America and African populations. Hum Biol 67:547-559.
Bortolini MC, Salzano FM, Zago MA, Silva-Junior WA and Weimer TA (1997) Genetic variability in two Brazilian ethnic groups: Comparison of mitochondrial and protein data. Amer J Phys Anthrop 103:147-156.
Carvalho RES and Azevêdo ES (1976) Melhoria na separao eletroforetica de proteinas atraves de substituio do amido importado por amido brasileiro comercial. Ciênc Cult 28:1507-1508.
Cavalli-Sforza LL, Menozzi P and Piazza A (1994) History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press, Princeton, v. 1, 541 pp.
Harris H and Hopkinson DA (1972) Average heterozygosity per locus in man: An estimate based on the incidence of enzyme polymorphism. Ann Hum Genet 36:9-20.
Harris H, Penington DG and Robson EB (1960) Electrophoresis of plasma proteins in starch gels. Bioch J 74:44-45.
Long JC (1991a) The genetic structure of admixed populations. Genetics 127:417-428.
Long JC (1991b) Genetic variation in Arizona Mexican Americans: Estimation and interpretation of admixture proportions. Am J Phys Anthropol 61:411-422.
Neel JV (1984) A revised estimate of the amount of genetic variation in human proteins: Implications for the distribution of DNA polymorphisms. Amer J Hum Genet 36:1135-1148.
Nei M (1987) Molecular Evolutionary Genetics. Columbia University Press, New York, pp 176-184.
Ota T (1993) DISPAN: Genetic Distance and Phylogenetic Analysis. University Park, PA: Institute of Molecular Evolutionary Genetics, Pennsylvania State University.
Race RR and Sanger R (1975) Blood Groups in Man. 6th edition. Blackwell, Oxford, 659 pp.
Robinson AR, Robson M, Harrison AP and Zuelzer WW (1957) A new technique for differentiation of hemoglobin. J Lab Clin Med 50:745-752.
Roychoudhury AK and Nei M (1988) Human Polymorphic Genes World Distribution. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 393 pp.
Schneider H, Guerreiro JF, Santos SEB, Weimer TA, Schneider MPC and Salzano FM (1987) Isolate breakdown in Amazonia: The Blacks of Trombetas river. Brazil J Genet 10:565- 574.
Sham PC and Curtis D (1995) Monte Carlo tests for associations between disease and alleles at highly polymorphic loci. Ann Hum Genet59:97-105.
Smithies O (1955) Zone electrophoresis in starch gels: Group variations in the serum proteins of normal human adults. Bioch Genet 61:629- 641.
Souza IR de (1993) Estudos demograficos geneticos em uma comunidade negroide isolada, Valongo, SC. Dissertao de Mestrado, Universidade Federal do Parana, Curitiba, 209 pp.
Souza IR de and Culpi L (1992) Valongo, an isolated Brazilian Black community. I. Structure of the population. Brazil J Genet 15:439-447.
Szeinberg A, Pipano S, Assa M, Medalie JH and Neuleld HM (1972) High frequency of atypical pseudocholinesterase gene among Iraqui and Iranian Jews. Clin Genet 3:123-127.
Van Ros G and Vervoort T (1973) Frequencies of the "atypical" and C5 variants of serum cholinesterase in Zairians and Belgians. Detection of the C5 variant by agar gel electrophoresis with an acid buffer. Ann Soc Belge Med Trop 53:633-644.
Whittaker M (1968) Frequency of atypical pseudocholinesterase in groups of individuals of different ethnographical origin. Acta Genet 18:567-572.(liada Rainha de Souza; Lo)