The pp38 Gene of Marek's Disease Virus (MDV) Is Ne
http://www.100md.com
病菌学杂志 2005年第7期
USDA-Agriculture Research Service, Avian Disease and Oncology Laboratory, East Lansing, Michigan
ABSTRACT
Marek's disease virus has a unique phosphoprotein, pp38, which is suspected to play an important role in Marek's disease pathogenesis. The objective of the present study was to utilize a mutant virus lacking the pp38 gene (rMd5pp38) to better characterize the biological function of pp38. This work shows that the pp38 gene is necessary to establish cytolytic infection in B cells but not in feather follicle epithelium, to produce an adequate level of latently infected T cells, and to maintain the transformed status in vivo.
TEXT
The biological function of the Marek's disease (MD) virus (MDV) unique pp38 gene in the pathogenesis of MD is poorly understood. pp38 has been associated with lymphoid tropism (18), reactivation from latency (19, 21), maintenance of tumors (20), and immunosuppression (8). Three recombinant viruses (rMd5, rMd5pp38, and rMd5/pp38CVI) were used in this work to expand the previous knowledge of the role of pp38 in viral replication and transmission, transformation and viral regulation of apoptosis, latency, reactivation, and cell cycle regulation. Construction of the recombinant viruses rMd5 and rMd5pp38 has been described previously (15). The construction of rMd5/pp38CVI is described elsewhere (L. F. Lee, X. Cai, I. M. Gimeno, and S. M. Reddy, submitted for publication). Briefly, the RecA-assisted restriction endonuclease cleavage procedure was used to insert the pp38 gene from CVI988/Rispens at the same site that previously contained the Md5 pp38 gene, and insertion of the pp38 gene at the correct site was later confirmed by PCR and DNA sequencing. In vitro and in vivo expression of pp38 in rMd5/pp38CVI was confirmed by immunostaining with the monoclonal antibody T65 (L. F. Lee, unpublished data) that specifically reacts with CVI988/Rispens pp38.
To study replication and transmission, 1-day-old 15x7 chickens (4) were inoculated with either rMd5, rMd5pp38, or rMd5/pp38CVI. Horizontal virus transmission was monitored by using contact chickens. Samples of bursa, thymus, and spleen were collected at 3, 6, and 9 days postinoculation (dpi). At 26 dpi, samples of feather follicle epithelium (FFE) and spleens of contact chickens were collected. Monoclonal antibodies 1AN86.17 and T81 (17) specific to MDV glycoprotein B (gB) and ribonucleotide reductase (RR), respectively, were used to study MDV replication. At 6 dpi, late-antigen gB and early-antigen RR expression could not be detected in bursa of Fabricius, thymus, or spleen after inoculation with rMd5pp38 (Fig. 1A), but both viral antigens were highly expressed in all tested chickens following rMd5 or rMd5/pp38CVI inoculation (Fig. 1C and E). The failure of rMd5pp38 to induce cytolytic infection was cell type specific because B lymphocytes but not FFE were affected (Fig. 1B, D, and F). Horizontal virus transmission was confirmed by isolating MDV from every contact chicken (data not shown).
To study the effect of the pp38 gene on transformation and apoptosis, two experiments were conducted. In experiment 1, 1-day-old 15x7 chickens (4) were inoculated with either rMd5 or rMd5pp38. Half of the animals in each treatment group were euthanized at 6 weeks postinoculation (wpi), and the other half were euthanized at 15 wpi. Samples of vagus, brachial and sciatic nerves, gonad, lung, liver, and spleen were collected for histopathology and immunohistochemistry and for the terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. Experiment 2 was conducted to confirm that differences between rMd5pp38 and rMd5 were due solely to the deletion of pp38. The experimental design was the same as that for replicate 1 but included chickens inoculated with rMd5/pp38CVI.
The frequency of gross lesions induced by rMd5pp38 and rMd5 was evaluated at 6 and 15 wpi in replicate 1 (Table 1). rMd5 induced a high frequency of lymphoproliferative lesions at 6 wpi (60 to 80%) that tended to increase at 15 wpi (up to 100%). rMd5pp38 induced microscopic lymphoproliferative lesions in only 25% of the chickens at 6 wpi. The frequency of lesions induced by rMd5pp38 also tended to increase at 15 wpi (up to 44%) but was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that in the group inoculated with rMd5. Most of the lymphoproliferative lesions induced by rMd5pp38 did not progress to gross tumors. This contrasted with the lymphoproliferative lesions induced by rMd5, which at 6 and 15 wpi were evident gross and histological lesions. No differences in the frequency of lymphoproliferative lesions between rMd5/pp38CVI and rMd5 were found at either 6 or 15 wpi in replicate 2 (Table 1). The phenotype of transformed cells in tumors induced by rMd5, rMd5/pp38CVI, and rMd5pp38 was in all cases CD4+ CD8– Meq+ MATSA+ (6, 11, 12; data not shown). In the lymphoproliferative lesions induced by rMd5pp38 that could be detected only by microscopic examination, many cells had homogeneously condensed chromatin, and numerous apoptotic bodies could be detected (Fig. 2B). Fragmentation of DNA was confirmed by the TUNEL technique (Fig. 2E). Lymphoproliferative lesions induced by either rMd5 or rMd5/pp38CVI did not show morphological evidence of apoptosis (Fig. 2A and C), and fragmentation of DNA could not be found by the TUNEL assay (Fig. 2D and F). Many viruses have developed different mechanisms to block apoptosis (1-3, 5, 7, 10, 14). This study shows that pp38 is involved in blocking apoptosis, and this might at least partially explain the inability of lymphoproliferative lesions to progress to gross tumors. However, it is unclear whether pp38 is directly blocking apoptosis or whether it is interfering with the cytotoxic T lymphocyte response against MD tumors.
Nerve lesions induced by rMd5pp38 differed from those induced by rMd5. While rMd5 and rMd5/pp38CVI induced typically neoplastic lesions (type A) (Fig. 2G and I), rMd5pp38 induced more inflammatory lesions (type B) characterized by abundant edema and extensive infiltration of plasma cells (Fig. 2H). It is generally considered that type B lesions have an important autoimmune component (13). Our results provide additional evidence for the relevance of pp38 in regulating the immune response and suggest the need for further study.
To study the role of pp38 on latency, reactivation, and cell cycle, 1-day-old 15x7 chickens (4) were inoculated with either rMd5 or rMd5pp38. Spleens were collected at 3, 6, 14, and 26 dpi to study the distribution of the splenocytes in the different phases of the cell cycle by propidium iodide staining and subsequent flow cytometry analysis. We have found that infection with either rMd5 or rMd5pp38 increased the percentage of splenocytes in the S phase as early as 3 dpi, but no difference between the two viruses was found (Table 2). It is not possible to determine from our results if MDV is regulating the cell cycle or if there is a change in the spleen cell populations after MDV infection. Seven additional spleens were collected 14 dpi for isolation by plaque assays and real-time PCR (9). The standard plaque assay was a good indicator of the ability of latent MDV to reactivate in cell culture, while real-time PCR is a relative measure of the number of viral genome copies in the sample. Our results show that regardless of the lower number of latently infected T cells in chickens inoculated with rMd5pp38 (10-fold lower), the ability of the virus to reactivate from latency in cell culture was not affected (i.e., 10-fold lower reactivation, but also relatively 10-fold fewer copies of the viral genome). Therefore, our results do not support a role of pp38 in reactivation (16), since no differences between rMd5 and rMd5pp38 in the ability to reactivate from latency were found.
In conclusion, our results show that pp38 is required to establish cytolytic infection in B lymphocytes but not in FFE, to produce an adequate level of latently infected T cells, and to maintain the transformed status of lymphocytes by preventing apoptosis. In this work, the deletion of pp38 results in an early onset of B-type lesions in the nerves and indicates that pp38 might be involved in immunomodulating the immune response against MD. Taken together, these findings indicate that rMd5pp38 might have the potential of being used as a model to study regression of tumors and the immune response against MDV and MDV-induced tumors.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Barbara Riegle and Lonnie Milam for excellent technical assistance. We also thank Raj Kulkarni and his staff for careful husbandry of the birds.
Present address: College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex.
REFERENCES
Afonso, C. L., J. G. Neilan, G. F. Kutish, and D. L. Rock. 1996. An African swine fever virus Bcl-2 homolog, 5-HL, suppresses apoptotic cell death. J. Virol. 70:4858-4863.
Afonso, C. L., E. R. Tulman, Z. Lu, L. Zsak, G. F. Kutish, and D. L. Rock. 2000. The genome of fowlpox virus. J. Virol. 74:3815-3831.
Afonso, C. L., E. R. Tulman, Z. Lu, L. Zsak, D. L. Rock, and G. F. Kutish. 2001. The genome of turkey herpesvirus. J. Virol. 75:971-978.
Bacon, L. D., H. D. Hunt, and H. H. Cheng. 2000. A review of the development of chicken lines to resolve genes determining resistance to diseases. Poult. Sci. 79:1082-1093.
Brun, A., C. Rivas, M. Esteban, J. M. Escribano, and C. Alonso. 1996. African swine fever virus gene A179L, a viral homolog of bcl-2, protects cells from programmed cell death. Virology 225:227-230.
Chan, M. L., C. L. Chen, L. L. Ager, and M. D. Cooper. 1988. Identification of the avian homologues of mammalian CD4 and CD8 antigens. J. Immunol. 140:2133-2138.
Cleary, M. L., S. D. Smith, and J. Sklar. 1986. Cloning and structural analysis of cDNAs from bcl-2 and a hybrid bcl-2/immunoglobulin transcript resulting from the t(14;18) translocation. Cell 47:19-28.
Cui, Z. Z., and A. Qin. 1996. Immunodepressive effects of the recombinant 38 kd phosphorylated protein of Marek's disease virus, p. 278-283. In R. F. Silva, H. H. Cheng, P. M. Coussens, L. F. Lee, and L. F. Velicer (ed.), Current research on Marek's disease. American Association of Avian Pathologists, Inc., Kennett Square, Pa.
Gimeno, I. M., R. L. Witter, H. D. Hunt, S. M. Reddy, and W. M. Reed. 2004. Biocharacteristics shared by highly protective vaccines against Marek's disease. Avian Pathol. 33:59-68.
Henderson, S., D. Huen, M. Rowe, C. Dawson, G. Johnson, and A. Rickinson. 1993. Epstein-Barr virus-coded BHRF1 protein, a viral homologue of Bcl-2, protects human B cells from programmed cell death. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:8479-8483.
Lillehoj, H. S., E. P. Lillehoj, D. Weinstock, and K. A. Schat. 1988. Functional and biochemical characterizations of avian T lymphocyte antigens identified by monoclonal antibodies. Eur. J. Immunol. 18:2059-2065.
Liu, J. L., L. F. Lee, and H. J. Kung. 1996. Biological properties of the Marek's disease latent protein MEQ: subcellular localization and transforming potential, p. 271-277. In R. F. Silva, H. H. Cheng, P. M. Coussens, L. F. Lee, and L. F. Velicer (ed.), Current research on Marek's disease. American Association of Avian Pathologists, Inc., Kennett Square, Pa.
Payne, L. N., and P. M. Biggs. 1967. Studies on Marek's disease. II. Pathogenesis. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 39:281-302.
Rao, L., M. Debbas, P. Sabbatini, D. Hockenberry, S. Korsmeyer, and E. White. 1992. The adenovirus E1A proteins induced apoptosis which is inhibited by the E1B 19K and Bcl-2 proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:7742-7746.
Reddy, S. M., B. Lupiani, I. M. Gimeno, R. F. Silva, L. F. Lee, and R. L. Witter. 2002. Rescue of a pathogenic Marek's disease virus with overlapping cosmid DNAs: use of a pp38 mutant to validate the technology for the study of gene function. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:7054-7059.
Ross, L. J. N. 1999. T-cell transformation by Marek's disease virus. Trends Microbiol. 7:22-29.
Silva, R. F., and L. F. Lee. 1984. Monoclonal antibody-mediated immunoprecipitation of proteins from cells infected with Marek's disease virus and turkey herpesvirus. Virology 136:307-320.
Silva, R. F., L. F. Lee, and G. F. Kutish. 2001. The genomic structure of Marek's disease virus, p. 143-158. In K. Hirai (ed.), Current topics in microbiology and immunology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
Witter, R. L., and K. A. Schat. 2003. Marek's disease, p. 407-465. In Y. M. Saif, H. J. Barnes, A. M. Fadly, J. R. Glisson, L. R. McDougald, and D. E. Swayne (ed.), Diseases of poultry, 11th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Xie, Q., A. S. Anderson, and R. W. Morgan. 1996. Marek's disease virus (MDV) ICP4, pp38, and meq genes are involved in the maintenance of transformation of MDCC-MSB1 MDV-transformed lymphoblastoid cells. J. Virol. 70:1125-1131.
Yamaguchi, T., S. L. Kaplan, P. S. Wakenell, and K. A. Schat. 2000. Transactivation of latent Marek's disease herpesvirus genes in QT35, a quail fibroblast cell line, by herpesvirus of turkeys. J. Virol. 74:10176-10186.(I. M. Gimeno, R. L. Witte)
ABSTRACT
Marek's disease virus has a unique phosphoprotein, pp38, which is suspected to play an important role in Marek's disease pathogenesis. The objective of the present study was to utilize a mutant virus lacking the pp38 gene (rMd5pp38) to better characterize the biological function of pp38. This work shows that the pp38 gene is necessary to establish cytolytic infection in B cells but not in feather follicle epithelium, to produce an adequate level of latently infected T cells, and to maintain the transformed status in vivo.
TEXT
The biological function of the Marek's disease (MD) virus (MDV) unique pp38 gene in the pathogenesis of MD is poorly understood. pp38 has been associated with lymphoid tropism (18), reactivation from latency (19, 21), maintenance of tumors (20), and immunosuppression (8). Three recombinant viruses (rMd5, rMd5pp38, and rMd5/pp38CVI) were used in this work to expand the previous knowledge of the role of pp38 in viral replication and transmission, transformation and viral regulation of apoptosis, latency, reactivation, and cell cycle regulation. Construction of the recombinant viruses rMd5 and rMd5pp38 has been described previously (15). The construction of rMd5/pp38CVI is described elsewhere (L. F. Lee, X. Cai, I. M. Gimeno, and S. M. Reddy, submitted for publication). Briefly, the RecA-assisted restriction endonuclease cleavage procedure was used to insert the pp38 gene from CVI988/Rispens at the same site that previously contained the Md5 pp38 gene, and insertion of the pp38 gene at the correct site was later confirmed by PCR and DNA sequencing. In vitro and in vivo expression of pp38 in rMd5/pp38CVI was confirmed by immunostaining with the monoclonal antibody T65 (L. F. Lee, unpublished data) that specifically reacts with CVI988/Rispens pp38.
To study replication and transmission, 1-day-old 15x7 chickens (4) were inoculated with either rMd5, rMd5pp38, or rMd5/pp38CVI. Horizontal virus transmission was monitored by using contact chickens. Samples of bursa, thymus, and spleen were collected at 3, 6, and 9 days postinoculation (dpi). At 26 dpi, samples of feather follicle epithelium (FFE) and spleens of contact chickens were collected. Monoclonal antibodies 1AN86.17 and T81 (17) specific to MDV glycoprotein B (gB) and ribonucleotide reductase (RR), respectively, were used to study MDV replication. At 6 dpi, late-antigen gB and early-antigen RR expression could not be detected in bursa of Fabricius, thymus, or spleen after inoculation with rMd5pp38 (Fig. 1A), but both viral antigens were highly expressed in all tested chickens following rMd5 or rMd5/pp38CVI inoculation (Fig. 1C and E). The failure of rMd5pp38 to induce cytolytic infection was cell type specific because B lymphocytes but not FFE were affected (Fig. 1B, D, and F). Horizontal virus transmission was confirmed by isolating MDV from every contact chicken (data not shown).
To study the effect of the pp38 gene on transformation and apoptosis, two experiments were conducted. In experiment 1, 1-day-old 15x7 chickens (4) were inoculated with either rMd5 or rMd5pp38. Half of the animals in each treatment group were euthanized at 6 weeks postinoculation (wpi), and the other half were euthanized at 15 wpi. Samples of vagus, brachial and sciatic nerves, gonad, lung, liver, and spleen were collected for histopathology and immunohistochemistry and for the terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. Experiment 2 was conducted to confirm that differences between rMd5pp38 and rMd5 were due solely to the deletion of pp38. The experimental design was the same as that for replicate 1 but included chickens inoculated with rMd5/pp38CVI.
The frequency of gross lesions induced by rMd5pp38 and rMd5 was evaluated at 6 and 15 wpi in replicate 1 (Table 1). rMd5 induced a high frequency of lymphoproliferative lesions at 6 wpi (60 to 80%) that tended to increase at 15 wpi (up to 100%). rMd5pp38 induced microscopic lymphoproliferative lesions in only 25% of the chickens at 6 wpi. The frequency of lesions induced by rMd5pp38 also tended to increase at 15 wpi (up to 44%) but was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that in the group inoculated with rMd5. Most of the lymphoproliferative lesions induced by rMd5pp38 did not progress to gross tumors. This contrasted with the lymphoproliferative lesions induced by rMd5, which at 6 and 15 wpi were evident gross and histological lesions. No differences in the frequency of lymphoproliferative lesions between rMd5/pp38CVI and rMd5 were found at either 6 or 15 wpi in replicate 2 (Table 1). The phenotype of transformed cells in tumors induced by rMd5, rMd5/pp38CVI, and rMd5pp38 was in all cases CD4+ CD8– Meq+ MATSA+ (6, 11, 12; data not shown). In the lymphoproliferative lesions induced by rMd5pp38 that could be detected only by microscopic examination, many cells had homogeneously condensed chromatin, and numerous apoptotic bodies could be detected (Fig. 2B). Fragmentation of DNA was confirmed by the TUNEL technique (Fig. 2E). Lymphoproliferative lesions induced by either rMd5 or rMd5/pp38CVI did not show morphological evidence of apoptosis (Fig. 2A and C), and fragmentation of DNA could not be found by the TUNEL assay (Fig. 2D and F). Many viruses have developed different mechanisms to block apoptosis (1-3, 5, 7, 10, 14). This study shows that pp38 is involved in blocking apoptosis, and this might at least partially explain the inability of lymphoproliferative lesions to progress to gross tumors. However, it is unclear whether pp38 is directly blocking apoptosis or whether it is interfering with the cytotoxic T lymphocyte response against MD tumors.
Nerve lesions induced by rMd5pp38 differed from those induced by rMd5. While rMd5 and rMd5/pp38CVI induced typically neoplastic lesions (type A) (Fig. 2G and I), rMd5pp38 induced more inflammatory lesions (type B) characterized by abundant edema and extensive infiltration of plasma cells (Fig. 2H). It is generally considered that type B lesions have an important autoimmune component (13). Our results provide additional evidence for the relevance of pp38 in regulating the immune response and suggest the need for further study.
To study the role of pp38 on latency, reactivation, and cell cycle, 1-day-old 15x7 chickens (4) were inoculated with either rMd5 or rMd5pp38. Spleens were collected at 3, 6, 14, and 26 dpi to study the distribution of the splenocytes in the different phases of the cell cycle by propidium iodide staining and subsequent flow cytometry analysis. We have found that infection with either rMd5 or rMd5pp38 increased the percentage of splenocytes in the S phase as early as 3 dpi, but no difference between the two viruses was found (Table 2). It is not possible to determine from our results if MDV is regulating the cell cycle or if there is a change in the spleen cell populations after MDV infection. Seven additional spleens were collected 14 dpi for isolation by plaque assays and real-time PCR (9). The standard plaque assay was a good indicator of the ability of latent MDV to reactivate in cell culture, while real-time PCR is a relative measure of the number of viral genome copies in the sample. Our results show that regardless of the lower number of latently infected T cells in chickens inoculated with rMd5pp38 (10-fold lower), the ability of the virus to reactivate from latency in cell culture was not affected (i.e., 10-fold lower reactivation, but also relatively 10-fold fewer copies of the viral genome). Therefore, our results do not support a role of pp38 in reactivation (16), since no differences between rMd5 and rMd5pp38 in the ability to reactivate from latency were found.
In conclusion, our results show that pp38 is required to establish cytolytic infection in B lymphocytes but not in FFE, to produce an adequate level of latently infected T cells, and to maintain the transformed status of lymphocytes by preventing apoptosis. In this work, the deletion of pp38 results in an early onset of B-type lesions in the nerves and indicates that pp38 might be involved in immunomodulating the immune response against MD. Taken together, these findings indicate that rMd5pp38 might have the potential of being used as a model to study regression of tumors and the immune response against MDV and MDV-induced tumors.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Barbara Riegle and Lonnie Milam for excellent technical assistance. We also thank Raj Kulkarni and his staff for careful husbandry of the birds.
Present address: College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex.
REFERENCES
Afonso, C. L., J. G. Neilan, G. F. Kutish, and D. L. Rock. 1996. An African swine fever virus Bcl-2 homolog, 5-HL, suppresses apoptotic cell death. J. Virol. 70:4858-4863.
Afonso, C. L., E. R. Tulman, Z. Lu, L. Zsak, G. F. Kutish, and D. L. Rock. 2000. The genome of fowlpox virus. J. Virol. 74:3815-3831.
Afonso, C. L., E. R. Tulman, Z. Lu, L. Zsak, D. L. Rock, and G. F. Kutish. 2001. The genome of turkey herpesvirus. J. Virol. 75:971-978.
Bacon, L. D., H. D. Hunt, and H. H. Cheng. 2000. A review of the development of chicken lines to resolve genes determining resistance to diseases. Poult. Sci. 79:1082-1093.
Brun, A., C. Rivas, M. Esteban, J. M. Escribano, and C. Alonso. 1996. African swine fever virus gene A179L, a viral homolog of bcl-2, protects cells from programmed cell death. Virology 225:227-230.
Chan, M. L., C. L. Chen, L. L. Ager, and M. D. Cooper. 1988. Identification of the avian homologues of mammalian CD4 and CD8 antigens. J. Immunol. 140:2133-2138.
Cleary, M. L., S. D. Smith, and J. Sklar. 1986. Cloning and structural analysis of cDNAs from bcl-2 and a hybrid bcl-2/immunoglobulin transcript resulting from the t(14;18) translocation. Cell 47:19-28.
Cui, Z. Z., and A. Qin. 1996. Immunodepressive effects of the recombinant 38 kd phosphorylated protein of Marek's disease virus, p. 278-283. In R. F. Silva, H. H. Cheng, P. M. Coussens, L. F. Lee, and L. F. Velicer (ed.), Current research on Marek's disease. American Association of Avian Pathologists, Inc., Kennett Square, Pa.
Gimeno, I. M., R. L. Witter, H. D. Hunt, S. M. Reddy, and W. M. Reed. 2004. Biocharacteristics shared by highly protective vaccines against Marek's disease. Avian Pathol. 33:59-68.
Henderson, S., D. Huen, M. Rowe, C. Dawson, G. Johnson, and A. Rickinson. 1993. Epstein-Barr virus-coded BHRF1 protein, a viral homologue of Bcl-2, protects human B cells from programmed cell death. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:8479-8483.
Lillehoj, H. S., E. P. Lillehoj, D. Weinstock, and K. A. Schat. 1988. Functional and biochemical characterizations of avian T lymphocyte antigens identified by monoclonal antibodies. Eur. J. Immunol. 18:2059-2065.
Liu, J. L., L. F. Lee, and H. J. Kung. 1996. Biological properties of the Marek's disease latent protein MEQ: subcellular localization and transforming potential, p. 271-277. In R. F. Silva, H. H. Cheng, P. M. Coussens, L. F. Lee, and L. F. Velicer (ed.), Current research on Marek's disease. American Association of Avian Pathologists, Inc., Kennett Square, Pa.
Payne, L. N., and P. M. Biggs. 1967. Studies on Marek's disease. II. Pathogenesis. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 39:281-302.
Rao, L., M. Debbas, P. Sabbatini, D. Hockenberry, S. Korsmeyer, and E. White. 1992. The adenovirus E1A proteins induced apoptosis which is inhibited by the E1B 19K and Bcl-2 proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:7742-7746.
Reddy, S. M., B. Lupiani, I. M. Gimeno, R. F. Silva, L. F. Lee, and R. L. Witter. 2002. Rescue of a pathogenic Marek's disease virus with overlapping cosmid DNAs: use of a pp38 mutant to validate the technology for the study of gene function. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:7054-7059.
Ross, L. J. N. 1999. T-cell transformation by Marek's disease virus. Trends Microbiol. 7:22-29.
Silva, R. F., and L. F. Lee. 1984. Monoclonal antibody-mediated immunoprecipitation of proteins from cells infected with Marek's disease virus and turkey herpesvirus. Virology 136:307-320.
Silva, R. F., L. F. Lee, and G. F. Kutish. 2001. The genomic structure of Marek's disease virus, p. 143-158. In K. Hirai (ed.), Current topics in microbiology and immunology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
Witter, R. L., and K. A. Schat. 2003. Marek's disease, p. 407-465. In Y. M. Saif, H. J. Barnes, A. M. Fadly, J. R. Glisson, L. R. McDougald, and D. E. Swayne (ed.), Diseases of poultry, 11th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Xie, Q., A. S. Anderson, and R. W. Morgan. 1996. Marek's disease virus (MDV) ICP4, pp38, and meq genes are involved in the maintenance of transformation of MDCC-MSB1 MDV-transformed lymphoblastoid cells. J. Virol. 70:1125-1131.
Yamaguchi, T., S. L. Kaplan, P. S. Wakenell, and K. A. Schat. 2000. Transactivation of latent Marek's disease herpesvirus genes in QT35, a quail fibroblast cell line, by herpesvirus of turkeys. J. Virol. 74:10176-10186.(I. M. Gimeno, R. L. Witte)